[update: many thanks to John Hobbins for providing even more references to this bank.]
Doug Chaplin in the comments section of one of my previous posts (more on this here), has kindly asked what I deem as the ‘key passages’ for one to grapple with the existence, or lack thereof, of the doctrine of hell. I use hell here for lack of a better word to encapsulate the idea of God’s future judgment upon the wicked, whether that be literal, metaphorical, redemptive, or temporary (annihilation). Though some of the below passages I find irrelevant to the discussion of eternal judgment, I include them because they have been the central passages for assessment throughout the history of the Church. Thus, with that caveat in mind, I now present a list of key passages for your own personal assessment and perhaps discussion (note that I have also included the most relevant texts from Qumran, the Pseudepigrapha, and the Apocrypha):
Qumran
1 QS 2.8 …the shadowy place of everlasting fire…
1 QS 4.12-13 … everlasting damnation by the avenging wrath of the fury of God, eternal torment and endless disgrace together with shameful extinction in the fire of the dark regions.
The Apocrypha
Judith 16:17 Woe to the nations that rise up against my people! The Lord Almighty will take vengeance on them in the day of judgment; fire and worms he will give to their flesh; they shall weep in pain for ever
Sirach 7:17 Humble yourself greatly, for the punishment of the ungodly is fire and worms.
4 Esdras 7:36 Then the pit of torment shall appear, and opposite it shall be the place of rest; and the furnace of hell shall be disclosed, and opposite it the paradise of delight.
2 Maccabees 12:41-46 So they all blessed the ways of the Lord, the righteous Judge, who reveals the things that are hidden; and they turned to prayer, beseeching that the sin which had been committed might be wholly blotted out. And the noble Judas exhorted the people to keep themselves free from sin, for they had seen with their own eyes what had happened because of the sin of those who had fallen. He also took up a collection, man by man, to the amount of two thousand drachmas of silver, and sent it to Jerusalem to provide for a sin offering. In doing this he acted very well and honorably, taking account of the resurrection. For if he were not expecting that those who had fallen would rise again, it would have been superfluous and foolish to pray for the dead. But if he was looking to the splendid reward that is laid up for those who fall asleep in godliness, it was a holy and pious thought. Therefore he made atonement for the dead, that they might be delivered from their sin.
Pseudepigrapha
1 Enoch 10.13-14In those days they shall be led off to the abyss of fire: and to the torment and the prison in which they shall be confined for ever. And whosoever shall be condemned and destroyed will from thenceforth be bound together with them to the end of all generations.
1 Enoch 54.1-6 And I looked and turned to another part of the earth, and saw there a deep valley with burning fire. And they brought the kings and the mighty, and began to cast them into this deep valley. And there mine eyes saw how they made these their instruments, iron chains of immeasurable weight. And I asked the angel of peace who went with me, saying: ‘ For whom are these chains being prepared ?’ And he said unto me: ‘ These are being prepared for the hosts of Azazel, so that they may take them and cast them into the abyss of complete condemnation, and they shall cover their jaws with rough stones as the Lord of Spirits commanded … And Michael, and Gabriel, and Raphael, and Phanuel shall take hold of them on that great day, and cast them on that day into the burning furnace, that the Lord of Spirits may take vengeance on them for their unrighteousness in becoming subject to Satan and leading astray those who dwell on the earth.’
1 Enoch 56.3-4 And he said unto me: ‘ To their elect and beloved ones, that they may be cast into the chasm of the abyss of the valley. And then that valley shall be filled with their elect and beloved, And the days of their lives shall be at an end,And the days of their leading astray shall not thenceforward be reckoned.
1 Enoch 90.26-28 And I saw at that time how a like abyss was opened in the midst of the earth, full of fire, and they brought those blinded sheep, and they were all judged and found guilty and cast into this fiery abyss, and they burned; now this abyss was to the right of that house. And I saw those sheep burning and their bones burning. And I stood up to see till they folded up that old house; and carried off all the pillars, and all the beams and ornaments of the house were at the same time folded up with it, and they carried it off and laid it in a place in the south of the land.
1 Enoch 100.9 Woe to you, ye sinners, on account of the words of your mouth, And on account of the deeds of your hands which your godlessness as wrought, In blazing flames burning worse than fire shall ye burn.
1 Enoch 103.7 “darkness . . . and a burning flame.”
1 Enoch 108.3-8 And wait ye indeed till sin has passed away, for their names shall be blotted out of the book of life and out of the holy books, and their seed shall be destroyed for ever, and their spirits shall be slain, and they shall cry and make lamentation in a place that is a chaotic wilderness, and in the fire shall they burn; for there is no earth there. 4. And I saw there something like an invisible cloud; for by reason of its depth I could not look over, and I saw a flame of fire blazing brightly, and things like shining mountains circling and sweeping to and fro. And I asked one of the holy angels who was with me and said unto him: ‘ What is this shining thing? for it is not a heaven but only the flame of a blazing 6 fire, and the voice of weeping and crying and lamentation and strong pain.’ 5. And he said unto me: ‘ This place which thou seest-here are cast the spirits of sinners and blasphemers, and of those who work wickedness, and of those who pervert everything that the Lord hath spoken through the mouth of the prophets-(even) the things that shall be. 7. For some of them are written and inscribed above in the heaven, in order that the angels may read them and know that which shall befall the sinners, and the spirits of the humble, and of those who have afflicted their bodies, and been recompensed by God; and of those who have been put to shame by wicked men: 8. Who love God and loved neither gold nor silver nor any of the good things which are in the world, but gave over their bodies to torture.
1 Enoch 108.15 And the sinners shall cry aloud and see them resplendent, and they indeed will go where days and seasons are prescribed for them.’
2 Enoch 10.1-3 And those two men led me up on to the Northern side, and showed me there a very terrible place, and (there were) all manner of tortures in that place: cruel darkness and unillumined gloom, and there is no light there, but murky fire constantly flaming aloft, and (there is) a fiery river coming forth, and that whole place is everywhere fire, and everywhere (there is) frost and ice, thirst and shivering, while the bonds are very cruel, and the angels (spirits) fearful and merciless, bearing angry weapons, merciless torture, and I said: Woe, woe, how very terrible is this place. And those men said to me: This place, O Enoch, is prepared for those who dishonour God, who on earth practice sin against nature, which is child-corruption after the sodomitic fashion, magic-making, enchantments and devilish witchcrafts, and who boast of their wicked deeds, stealing, lies, calumnies, envy, rancour, fornication, murder, and who, accursed, steal the souls of men, who, seeing the poor take away their goods and themselves wax rich, injuring them for other men’s goods; who being able to satisfy the empty, made the hungering to die; being able to clothe, stripped the naked; and who knew not their creator, and bowed to the soulless (and lifeless) gods, who cannot see nor hear, vain gods, (who also) built hewn images and bow down to unclean handiwork, for all these is prepared this place among these, for eternal inheritance.
2 Baruch 44.15 For to them shall be given the world to come, But the dwelling of the rest who are many shall be in the fire.’
2 Baruch 51.5-6 When therefore they see those, over whom they are now exalted, (but) who shall then be exalted and glorified more than they, they shall respectively be transformed, the latter into the splendor of angels, and the former shall yet more waste away in wonder at the visions and in the beholding of the forms. 6 For they shall first behold and afterwards depart to be tormented.
The Testament of Abraham 12-13 While he was yet saying these things to me, behold two angels, fiery in aspect, and pitiless in mind, and severe in look, and they drove on thousands of souls, pitilessly lashing them with fiery thongs. The angel laid hold of one soul, and they drove all the souls in at the broad gate to destruction. So we also went along with the angels . . . on his left sat an angel all fiery, pitiless, and severe, holding in his hand a trumpet, having within it lead to life and to destruction. This man that sits between them is Adam, the first man whom the Lord created, and set him in this place to see every soul that departs from the body, seeing that all are from him. When, therefore, thou seest him weeping, know that he has seen many souls being led to destruction, but when thou seest him laughing, he has seen many souls being led into life. Seest thou how his weeping exceeds his laughter? Since he sees the greater part of the world being led away through the broad gate to destruction, therefore his weeping exceeds his laughter seven-fold . . . And as Abraham stood and marveled. behold an angel of the Lord driving sixty thousand souls of sinners to destruction, And Abraham said to Michael, Do all these go into destruction? And Michael said to him, Yea, but lat us go and search among these souls, if there is among them even one righteous. And when they went, they found an angel holding in his hand one soul of a woman from among these sixty thousand, because he had found her sins weighing equally with all her works, and they were neither in motion nor at rest, but in a state between; but the other souls he led away to destruction. Abraham said to Michael, Lord, is this the angel that removes the souls from the body or not? Michael answered and said, This is death, and he leads them into the place of judgment, that the judge may try them . . . Woe is me, all the sins that I did in the world I forgot, but here they were not forgotten. Then they took her away also and gave her over to the tormentors.
Old Testament
Deuteronomy 32:22 For a fire is kindled by my anger, and it burns to the depths of Sheol, devours the earth and its increase, and sets on fire the foundations of the mountains.
Job 10:21 before I go whence I shall not return, to the land of gloom and deep darkness, 22 the land of gloom and chaos, where light is as darkness.”
Job 21:30 that the wicked man is spared in the day of calamity, that he is rescued in the day of wrath? 31 Who declares his way to his face, and who requites him for what he has done? 32 When he is borne to the grave, watch is kept over his tomb. 33 The clods of the valley are sweet to him; all men follow after him, and those who go before him are innumerable. 34 How then will you comfort me with empty nothings? There is nothing left of your answers but falsehood.”
Isaiah 33:14 The sinners in Zion are afraid; trembling has seized the godless: “Who among us can dwell with the devouring fire? Who among us can dwell with everlasting burnings?” 15 He who walks righteously and speaks uprightly, who despises the gain of oppressions, who shakes his hands, lest they hold a bribe, who stops his ears from hearing of bloodshed and shuts his eyes from looking upon evil,
Isaiah 66:24 They will go out and observe the corpses of those who rebelled against me, for the maggots that eat them will not die, and the fire that consumes them will not die out. All people will find the sight abhorrent.
Daniel 12:1-3 At that time Michael, the great prince who watches over your people, will arise. There will be a time of distress unlike any other from the nation’s beginning up to that time. But at that time your own people, all those whose names are found written in the book, will escape. 23 But the wise will shine like the brightness of the heavenly expanse. And those bringing many to righteousness will be like the stars forever and ever. Many of those who sleep in the dusty ground will awake– some to everlasting life, and others to shame and everlasting abhorrence.
New Testament
Matthew 3:10 Even now the axe is laid to the root of the trees; every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire. “I baptize you with water for repentance, but he who is coming after me is mightier than I, whose sandals I am not worthy to carry; he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire. His winnowing fork is in his hand, and he will clear his threshing floor and gather his wheat into the granary, but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire.”
Matthew 5:22 But I say to you that every one who is angry with his brother shall be liable to judgment; whoever insults his brother shall be liable to the council, and whoever says, `You fool!’ shall be liable to the hell (gehenna) of fire.
Matthew 5:29-30 If your right eye causes you to sin, pluck it out and throw it away; it is better that you lose one of your members than that your whole body be thrown into hell (gehenna). And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away; it is better that you lose one of your members than that your whole body go into hell (gehenna).
Matthew 7:13-14 “Enter by the narrow gate; for the gate is wide and the way is easy, that leads to destruction, and those who enter by it are many. 14 For the gate is narrow and the way is hard, that leads to life, and those who find it are few.
Matthew 7:19 Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire.
Matthew 8:12 while the sons of the kingdom will be thrown into the outer darkness; there men will weep and gnash their teeth.”
Matthew 10:28 And do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul; rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell (gehenna).
Matthew 12:31-32 Therefore I tell you, every sin and blasphemy will be forgiven men, but the blasphemy against the Spirit will not be forgiven. And whoever says a word against the Son of man will be forgiven; but whoever speaks against the Holy Spirit will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come.
Matthew 12:41-42 The men of Nineveh will arise at the judgment with this generation and condemn it; for they repented at the preaching of Jonah, and behold, something greater than Jonah is here. The queen of the South will arise at the judgment with this generation and condemn it; for she came from the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon, and behold, something greater than Solomon is here.
Matthew 13:18-23 “Hear then the parable of the sower. When any one hears the word of the kingdom and does not understand it, the evil one comes and snatches away what is sown in his heart; this is what was sown along the path. As for what was sown on rocky ground, this is he who hears the word and immediately receives it with joy; yet he has no root in himself, but endures for a while, and when tribulation or persecution arises on account of the word, immediately he falls away. As for what was sown among thorns, this is he who hears the word, but the cares of the world and the delight in riches choke the word, and it proves unfruitful. As for what was sown on good soil, this is he who hears the word and understands it; he indeed bears fruit, and yields, in one case a hundredfold, in another sixty, and in another thirty.”
Matthew 18:8-9 And if your hand or your foot causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away; it is better for you to enter life maimed or lame than with two hands or two feet to be thrown into the eternal fire.And if your eye causes you to sin, pluck it out and throw it away; it is better for you to enter life with one eye than with two eyes to be thrown into the hell (gehenna) of fire.
Matthew 22:13 Then the king said to the attendants, `Bind him hand and foot, and cast him into the outer darkness; there men will weep and gnash their teeth.’
Matthew 23:15 Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for you traverse sea and land to make a single proselyte, and when he becomes a proselyte, you make him twice as much a child of hell (gehenna) as yourselves.
Matthew 23:33 You serpents, you brood of vipers, how are you to escape being sentenced to hell (gehenna)?
Matthew 25:14-30 “For it will be as when a man going on a journey called his servants and entrusted to them his property; to one he gave five talents, to another two, to another one, to each according to his ability. Then he went away. He who had received the five talents went at once and traded with them; and he made five talents more. So also, he who had the two talents made two talents more. But he who had received the one talent went and dug in the ground and hid his master’s money. Now after a long time the master of those servants came and settled accounts with them. And he who had received the five talents came forward, bringing five talents more, saying, `Master, you delivered to me five talents; here I have made five talents more.’ His master said to him, `Well done, good and faithful servant; you have been faithful over a little, I will set you over much; enter into the joy of your master.’ And he also who had the two talents came forward, saying, `Master, you delivered to me two talents; here I have made two talents more.’ His master said to him, `Well done, good and faithful servant; you have been faithful over a little, I will set you over much; enter into the joy of your master.’ He also who had received the one talent came forward, saying, `Master, I knew you to be a hard man, reaping where you did not sow, and gathering where you did not winnow; so I was afraid, and I went and hid your talent in the ground. Here you have what is yours.’ But his master answered him, `You wicked and slothful servant! You knew that I reap where I have not sowed, and gather where I have not winnowed? Then you ought to have invested my money with the bankers, and at my coming I should have received what was my own with interest. So take the talent from him, and give it to him who has the ten talents. For to every one who has will more be given, and he will have abundance; but from him who has not, even what he has will be taken away. And cast the worthless servant into
Matthew 25:31-46 “When the Son of man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, then he will sit on his glorious throne. Before him will be gathered all the nations, and he will separate them one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats, and he will place the sheep at his right hand, but the goats at the left. Then the King will say to those at his right hand, `Come, O blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world; for I was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, I was a stranger and you welcomed me, I was naked and you clothed me, I was sick and you visited me, I was in prison and you came to me.’ Then the righteous will answer him, `Lord, when did we see thee hungry and feed thee, or thirsty and give thee drink? And when did we see thee a stranger and welcome thee, or naked and clothe thee? And when did we see thee sick or in prison and visit thee?’ And the King will answer them, `Truly, I say to you, as you did it to one of the least of these my brethren, you did it to me.’ Then he will say to those at his left hand, `Depart from me, you cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels; for I was hungry and you gave me no food, I was thirsty and you gave me no drink, I was a stranger and you did not welcome me, naked and you did not clothe me, sick and in prison and you did not visit me.’ Then they also will answer, `Lord, when did we see thee hungry or thirsty or a stranger or naked or sick or in prison, and did not minister to thee?’ Then he will answer them, `Truly, I say to you, as you did it not to one of the least of these, you did it not to me.’ And they will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life.”
(Similar passages in Mark and Luke—no need to repeat them)
Mark 12:40 who devour widows’ houses and for a pretense make long prayers. They will receive the greater condemnation.”
Luke 12:47-48 And that servant who knew his master’s will, but did not make ready or act according to his will, shall receive a severe beating. But he who did not know, and did what deserved a beating, shall receive a light beating. Every one to whom much is given, of him will much be required; and of him to whom men commit much they will demand the more.
Luke 16:19-31 “There was a rich man, who was clothed in purple and fine linen and who feasted sumptuously every day. And at his gate lay a poor man named Lazarus, full of sores, who desired to be fed with what fell from the rich man’s table; moreover the dogs came and licked his sores. The poor man died and was carried by the angels to Abraham’s bosom. The rich man also died and was buried; and in Hades, being in torment, he lifted up his eyes, and saw Abraham far off and Lazarus in his bosom. And he called out, `Father Abraham, have mercy upon me, and send Lazarus to dip the end of his finger in water and cool my tongue; for I am in anguish in this flame.’ But Abraham said, `Son, remember that you in your lifetime received your good things, and Lazarus in like manner evil things; but now he is comforted here, and you are in anguish. And besides all this, between us and you a great chasm has been fixed, in order that those who would pass from here to you may not be able, and none may cross from there to us.’ And he said, `Then I beg you, father, to send him to my father’s house, for I have five brothers, so that he may warn them, lest they also come into this place of torment.’ But Abraham said, `They have Moses and the prophets; let them hear them.’ And he said, `No, father Abraham; but if some one goes to them from the dead, they will repent.’ He said to him, `If they do not hear Moses and the prophets, neither will they be convinced if some one should rise from the dead.’”
1 Corinthians 3:11-15 For no other foundation can any one lay than that which is laid, which is Jesus Christ. Now if any one builds on the foundation with gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, straw — each man’s work will become manifest; for the Day will disclose it, because it will be revealed with fire, and the fire will test what sort of work each one has done. If the work which any man has built on the foundation survives, he will receive a reward. If any man’s work is burned up, he will suffer loss, though he himself will be saved, but only as through fire.
1 Thessalonians 5:3 When people say, “There is peace and security,” then sudden destruction will come upon them as travail comes upon a woman with child, and there will be no escape.
1 Thessalonians 5:9 For God has not destined us for wrath, but to obtain salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ,
2 Thessalonians 1:9 They shall suffer the punishment of eternal destruction and exclusion from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might,
Hebrews 6:1-3 Therefore let us leave the elementary doctrine of Christ and go on to maturity, not laying again a foundation of repentance from dead works and of faith toward God, with instruction about ablutions, the laying on of hands, the resurrection of the dead, and eternal judgment. And this we will do if God permits.
2 Peter 2:4 For if God did not spare the angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell (tartaros) and committed them to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment;
Jude 1:6-7 And the angels that did not keep their own position but left their proper dwelling have been kept by him in eternal chains in the nether gloom until the judgment of the great day; just as Sodom and Gomorrah and the surrounding cities, which likewise acted immorally and indulged in unnatural lust, serve as an example by undergoing a punishment of eternal fire.
Revelation 1:18 and the living one; I died, and behold I am alive for evermore, and I have the keys of Death and Hades.
Revelation 6:8 And I saw, and behold, a pale horse, and its rider’s name was Death, and Hades followed him; and they were given power over a fourth of the earth, to kill with sword and with famine and with pestilence and by wild beasts of the earth.
Revelation 14:10-11 he also shall drink the wine of God’s wrath, poured unmixed into the cup of his anger, and he shall be tormented with fire and sulphur in the presence of the holy angels and in the presence of the Lamb. And the smoke of their torment goes up for ever and ever; and they have no rest, day or night, these worshipers of the beast and its image, and whoever receives the mark of its name.”
Revelation 19:20 And the beast was captured, and with it the false prophet who in its presence had worked the signs by which he deceived those who had received the mark of the beast and those who worshiped its image. These two were thrown alive into the lake of fire that burns with sulphur.
Revelation 20:10-15 and the devil who had deceived them was thrown into the lake of fire and sulphur where the beast and the false prophet were, and they will be tormented day and night for ever and ever. Then I saw a great white throne and him who sat upon it; from his presence earth and sky fled away, and no place was found for them. And I saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and books were opened. Also another book was opened, which is the book of life. And the dead were judged by what was written in the books, by what they had done. And the sea gave up the dead in it, Death and Hades gave up the dead in them, and all were judged by what they had done. Then Death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. This is the second death, the lake of fire; and if any one’s name was not found written in the book of life, he was thrown into the lake of fire.
Revelation 21:7-8 He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son. But as for the cowardly, the faithless, the polluted, as for murderers, fornicators, sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars, their lot shall be in the lake that burns with fire and sulphur, which is the second death.
August 8th, 2009 at 11:15 pm
Thanks. You’ve produced a fairly comprehensive listing – although I suspect one has to go further back into the prophecies of historical destruction (e.g. Amos) to read the “evolution” of the idea of judgement.
There’s a fair bit of work here for some intrepid soul.
August 9th, 2009 at 12:02 am
Hi Doug. I’m not sure if the study should focus so much on the historical destruction, but rather I think the evolution of the afterlife. The HB is virtually absent of such a belief until very very late. Granted, there are a few occasions where Sheol seems to be something more than ‘just a grave’ but even then its mentioned in the poetic genre as simply a dark netherworld without much description. The 2nd temple period then begins a shift, especially in 1 Enoch, where a two compartmental theory of Sheol appears, dealing with the question of just retribution. Then of course there is the NT which gets bit clearer and finally into full focus with many by the Fathers in the 1-2 centuries. Perhaps it would also be helpful for me to provide reference to some of the Fathers.
August 8th, 2009 at 11:24 pm
Thanks for posting this stuff, Rob. I wonder how the evidence from Qumran and Enoch might mitigate the force of the argument that much of the language of destruction on the lips of Jesus and Johnny B was
referring not to eternal destruction, but to the terrible events surround the destruction of the temple and the eventual dessimation of Judaism (at least as far as it was concerned with the temple cultus).
August 8th, 2009 at 11:58 pm
Mike,
Thanks for chiming in. This is an interesting view that you mention. I spent the last 3-4 days reading 4-5 books on hell and haven’t come across this. Do you know who might hold such a view?
If by mitigate, you mean refute, then yes, I think it creates a problem for such a view. I’d be interested in your follow-up, thanks.
August 9th, 2009 at 5:26 am
Hi Rob,
Thanks for this, but there are a lot more relevant references in the Hebrew Bible, insofar as Sheol, the Pit, and cognates are the equivalent of Hades in Greek (and so rendered, with considerable consistency, by translators of the Hebrew Bible into Greek).
You are missing obvious passages like the grande finale of the book of Isaiah, 66:24, but also 24:21-22; and Daniel 12:1-3 of course; in 1 Enoch, 10:13-14; of particular interest is chapter 22, not to mention chapters 26-27; you will also want to take a close look at Jubilees.
Your Judith 16:7 reference is a typo; you meant 16:17, in which we find the motif of the weeping of the damned found in Matthew 8:12, not to mention 1 Enoch 108:3.5.15.
The eternal damnation of those who walk in the spirit of wickedness is very clear in 1QS in columns II and IV (cf. I Enoch 103:7-8). You note these references, but need to provide more context, I think, for a proper understanding of them.
Finally – sorry to be so long-winded – rabbinic literature needs to taken into account. There the garden of Eden and Gehenna have a dual purpose as abodes of the dead and as places of eternal damnation or blessedness after the last judgment.
Not on hell specifically, but on the theme of judgment, I recommend Marius Reiser, Jesus and Judgment: The Eschatological Proclamation in Its Jewish Context, for a first orientation.
August 9th, 2009 at 5:58 am
Hi John, thanks for the comment. I’m a faithful reader of your blog and glad to have you.
With regards to Sheol and its cognates, I intentionally left those texts out because they don’t seem to contribute much to future punishment (a limitation of this post—only to discuss it and not death all together) though I have of course included a few that have been debated. With this in mind, I appreciate some of these other passages you have mentioned (and thanks for catching the typo on Judith), and I’ll thumb through them tomorrow with the hopes of updating the list further.
With regard to your point that rabbinic literature needs to be considered—I agree. Not only considerations of the literature and rabbinic hyperbole, but also a sensitivity to the genre of these texts is important (which in part, I’m sure, is also your point). As I mention above, I don’t personally think that all of the texts I list apply, but I list them because they have been considered in the discussions throughout Church History. I hope all that makes sense.
August 10th, 2009 at 5:26 am
I just updated many of these references to the list… many thanks, John!
August 9th, 2009 at 6:38 am
It’s true that many references to Sheol are not explicit about it being a bad place. Furthermore, you go there because you messed up, or because someone does you a grave injustice and ends your life prematurely, or simply, perhaps, because you die, though there was, fairly early on, more than one view on that (see Jon Levenson’s monograph).
It has to be remembered that death per se is punishment in the Bible. It is not a natural event. Explicitness about Sheol wasn’t necessary; everyone knew it was the last place you wanted to be. That’s why Job is so shocking in 3:11-18, in which he thinks of Sheol as an improvement over life as he knew it.
There are many aspects to Sheol that get overlooked. For example, it is a place of collective punishment for entire nations who have outworn their historical welcome. See Ezekiel 31 on Assyria and Egpyt. It forms part of the necessary background to Matthew 12:41-42, along with the passage from Isa 24 I already cited.
August 10th, 2009 at 5:01 am
John,
Thanks for the follow up and sorry for the delay in getting back with you. I wanted to have enough time to consult some of the references you mentioned along with a paper I recently wrote on ‘Qoheleth’s Theology of Death’ in order to refresh myself of my conclusions.
As I look at the passage in Eze 32 I’m having trouble seeing ‘the grave’ as a punishing object. Rather, it seems to be the great equalizer, the place where the wicked and injustices will be done no more. Isa 24 is interesting, but I need more time to think on it. It is very poetic and I’m at first inclined to think of the earth as the pit (rather than a reference to Sheol), though I’ll continue to mull this over and give it some further research.
I suppose you are correct that until Job and Qohelet (and interestingly Sophocles in Oedipus who makes an almost identical declaration as Job and Qohelet, i.e. better to die than to live), death was the last place people wanted to be because there is so much emphasis placed on life. BUT, it doesn’t seem to be a place one might dread, at least in the early texts. For example, the Patriarch’s joining their ancestors at death. Interestingly, Shannon Burke observes a similar movement in the Egyptian texts, that is, a movement from a happy outlook of the grave e.g. a rejoining of the family, only to have a very pessimistic and negative outlook of the afterlife. I blog a bit more about this here:
http://kashow.wordpress.com/2009/04/23/qoheleth-from-heterodox-to-orthodox-part-ii/
and here:
http://kashow.wordpress.com/2009/04/18/heterodoxy-in-qoheleth/
See Shannon Burke, Death in Qoheleth and Egyptian Biographies of the Late Period. And also by Burke, God, self, and death : the shape of religious transformation in the Second Temple period.
Of course I welcome any objections to these thoughts, John. Perhaps you would nuance some of these comments—or perhaps we are essentially in the same place but only adding caveats for clarification? Regardless, you’re opinions are always highly respected here.
August 10th, 2009 at 10:06 am
Rob,
Thanks for the conversation. I’m just exploring possibilities at this stage of the game, so I appreciate the engagement.
That’s the first I’ve heard of a postulated evolution from lack of dread to dread in the face of death. I wonder if it can correlated with burial practices from Bronze Age to Iron Age. My default point of departure for postulated evolution of this kind over a long duration is skepticism, but now you’ve piqued my interest. I will test the theory out a little bit as time goes by.
I think you’re right that for Qohelet at least, death is the great equalizer.
Equalization, however, is not quite the point in Isa 14 and Ez 32, according to Moshe Greenberg on Ez 32 in AB: it’s total reversal, such that the top dog becomes the bottom dog. This is equalization plus as it were. Ez 28 and 31 seem to imply the same thing.
As for Isa 24, aren’t they in prison? It sounds like punishment. Given the context, that might be expected.
My main point was simply to bring these neglected texts into the limelight. Entire collectivities are involved, entire nations. It’s analogous to Psalm 81 in some ways, not to mention the Matthew passage I cited, of extreme interest if you ask me.
August 10th, 2009 at 5:44 pm
John-thanks. Yes, the evolution of thought is rooted in a belief in progress revelation, that is thought evolves more and more as times goes by and more oracles are given and also thought evolves when the a person’s setting in life necessitate change. Case in point being, as I mentioned earlier, Job and Qoheleth, a setting of severe oppression.
Interestingly, as you know, thought evolves even more in the second temple period, perhaps making way for the culmination in the NT, where Sheol has two compartments (1 Enoch). And of course, the NT where the righteous will live eternally with YHWH while the wicked will be ______ (well that’s the question).
Yes I just added Matthew 12, I accidentally left that one out when updating yesterday.
I’ll continue to think about Isa 24 – indeed it is punishment, my point above is that I wonder what that punishment is, that is I think the punishment or “the pit” may just be being thrown to earth not a future eschatological judgment.
August 10th, 2009 at 6:06 pm
I look forward to engaging the subject matter further online. You are a very pleasant conversation partner.
[BTW, you may want to correct the Judith reference to 16:17.]
As far as Isa 24:21-23 is concerned, I find Blenkinsopp in his AB commentary pretty convincing (356-357). But he doesn’t really consider the alternative you are suggesting.
August 10th, 2009 at 9:41 pm
Likewise, John. Thanks, I just updated it.
August 10th, 2009 at 6:17 pm
Well, you’ve done a fine job of demonstrating how pervasive the belief in Hell was at the time of Jesus.
But that’s not the same as proving Hell is real. There were a lot of beliefs in antiquity that had a big following. The Egyptians believed a giant crocodile headed deity would devour the dead souls of those who failed the judgment of the deity Ma’at! But how many of us lay awake at night wondering if, upon death, we’ll be chewed alive for having hearts that weigh more than Ma’at’s feather on her scales of judgment? My guess is not very many.
Getting a lot of people to believe something proves nothing. The fact that an idea is ancient doesn’t make it true. No, the biggest reason the doctrine of Hell persists today is because young children are ingrained with the fear of its flames, a fear which is not so easily removed even after these abused children grow up.
I’ve actully written an entire book on this topic–Hell? No! Why You Can Be Certain There’s No Such Place As Hell (for any interested, you can download a free Ecopy from my website: http://www.ricklannoye.com), but let me share one of the points I make as an example of why we can and should toss this belief away once and for all.
The majority of Jesus’ teachings in the gospels resound a constant theme: Care for those who are suffering! According to most of what Jesus is said to have taught, God wants to help and heal all people, not abandon and hurt them. This, alone, precludes a deity who could torture people for any length of time, much less forever.
My favorite example from the gospels which makes the idea of Hell impossible is in Luke 9:51-56, in which Jesus becomes very disappointed with his disciples when they suggest that God rain FIRE on a village of people who had REJECTED him. Jesus tries so hard to explain, “Don’t you know what spirit is inspiring this talk?” Presumably, not the Holy Spirit! He goes on to say he has come to save, to help, to heal, instead. He had no interest in harming the people in that village, even though they had rejected him.
This same Jesus could never turn right around and, not only burn a few people for a few horrific minutes until they’re dead, but burn billions of people for an eternity! No way.
No, the doctrine of Hell made its way into Christianity long after Jesus’ death, when it became mostly a Greek religion. The Greeks imported their Pagan belief in Hades with them when they converted, and their scribes adulterated the gospels here and there to place the belief on Jesus’ lips.
August 10th, 2009 at 9:40 pm
Rick, I think you are wrong and I don’t see your logic nor do I see a demonstration of careful exegetical reasoning. You have already commented previously on my blog. I have responded to you here: http://kashow.wordpress.com/2009/08/03/will-eternal-damnation-occur/
August 10th, 2009 at 10:19 pm
Rob,
Quick question:
you quote 1st Thessalonians 5:3, with wrath as a reference to hell.
If you are certain that Paul is using this in this manner, why did you not also refer us to Ephesians 1 when God saves us from being objects of wrath and similar passages?
August 10th, 2009 at 11:39 pm
Rodney, thanks for stopping by. Always a pleasure to have you.
2 comments in response to your question:
1 – As you see from my introductory paragraph for this post, I do not personally think that all of these texts are relevant for hell. So the first thing I would say is I am not ‘certain,’ rather the text is listed because others have used this text for hell in Church History.
2 – I don’t know what you mean by ‘wrath’ in Ephesians 1. I may be missing it, but the only reference I can think of that you may be talking about is Eph 2.3. This may very well be a passage to be included for hell, though I left it out because I haven’t read anyone use it. The question with the greek work here is whether or not it refers to past or present destruction or eschatological destruction. While BDAG puts Eph 2.3 in the cat of eschatological destruction, I think this categorization is questionable because I don’t find any good reason not to see it as a wrath of the present or past.
Thanks again for stopping by.
August 11th, 2009 at 3:23 am
Sorry, I meant Ephesians 2:3.
And I agree with your assessment of the Greek in this passage.
Thanks for the clarification.
August 11th, 2009 at 3:10 pm
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